Strain Controlled Triaxial Test- Geotechnical Engineering

1. INTRODUCTION From civil engineering view, Soil is the medium through which the structural loads are transferred safely and efficiently. Soil should be consistent enough to satisfy the requirements even under inevitable circumstances like earthquake, bomb reactions etc. It is necessary to incorporate the seismic effects into the soil properties. Like concrete or steel, engineering properties of soil cannot be found out using theory of classical dynamics and vibrations. It can be found only field and lab tests. To quench the above requirement, various techniques are employed nowadays. The most common methods are cyclic simple shear, cyclic triaxial shear and cyclic torsional shear tests. The dynamic triaxial test is the most effective method to arrive the static and dynamic properties of soil like cyclic deformation, damping ratio, liquefaction strength etc. Though it has some limitations, it is widely used for the analysis of soil under seismic forces. The fundamental parameters obtained from this test are cyclic shear stress and cyclic shear strain, through which the soil is defined. The tests can be done either by stress controlled (cyclic shear stress) or strain controlled (cyclic shear strain). The test setups are highly sophisticated and costly. It needs highly skilled labour. The measuring devices used in the system needs to be calibrated and sealed properly as it is more sensitive to disturbances. The results obtained reflect the site seismic condition to the maximum level provided the strain level is kept minimum. Fig 1. 1 Triaxial Cell Fig 1. 2. A typical Cyclic triaxial apparatus 1. 1WHY DYNAMIC TRIAXIAL The Dynamic forces are time dependent and are usually cyclic in nature i. e. they involve several cycles of loading, unloading and reloading. Earthquake is three dimensional in nature. Hence the shear waves and body waves produced by the earthquake tend to deform the soil in all the directions (for the horizontal level ground). Dynamic Triaxial tests actually reflect the soil condition (in all round stresses) in the site. During earthquakes, the seismic waves cause the loose sand to contract and thereby increasing the pore water pressure. Under undrained loading, development of high pore pressure results in upward flow of water, thereby making the sand in liquefied condition. Pore water pressure is measured effectively in triaxial tests. Among the stress-control and strain-control condition, strain control is adopted widely. This is because; stress-control test has great sensitivity to the sample disturbance. In case of strain-control, pore pressure developed during tests is less affected by specimen fabric and density. The tests can be done on intact specimens and reconstituted specimens. While comparing the results obtained from intact and reconstituted specimens, there is much deviation in stress-control compared to strain-control. (tests done by vucetic and dobry, in 1988). Stress path control is used in the study of path dependence of soil behaviour. Stress deformation and strength characteristics depend on initial static stress field, initial void ratio, pulsating stress level and the frequency of loading. 1. 2APPLICATIONS There are variety of engineering problems which rely heavily on the behaviour of soils under dynamic conditions. These includes design and the remediation Of machine foundation, geotechnical earthquake engineering, protection against construction vibration, non-destructive characterization of the subsurface, design of offshore structures, screening of rail and traffic induced vibrations, vibration isolation etc. When it comes to dynamic triaxial test, the wide range of application is the liquefaction behaviour of soil under seismic forces. 2. HISTORY One of the first pieces of equipment designed to test cyclic triaxial loading was the pendulum loading apparatus by Casagrande and Shannon in 1949. This utilizes the energy of the a pendulum which when released from a selected height, strikes a spring connected to the piston rod of a hydraulic cylinder, this cylinder is further connected to another cylinder located above the cel. The time of loading was between 0. 05 and 0. 01 sec. Fig. 2. 1. Pendulum Loading Apparatus Casagrande and Shannon came up with an equipment called Falling Beam Apparatus as shown in Fig. 2. 2 In 1960, Sead and fead used Pneumatic System for cyclic loading. It marks the evolution of the dynamic triaxial shear apparatus. Fig. 2. 2. Falling Beam Apparatus 3. PRINCIPLE First attempt was made by Seed and Lee (1966) by consolidating a saturated sample under a confining pressure and subjected to constant amplitude cyclic axial stress under undrained conditions. This test was performed till they deformed to a certain amount of peak axial strain. Under this condition creates a stress conditions on a plane of 45 ° through the sample which is the same as those produced on the horizontal plane in the ground during earthquakes. This is the basis on which the cyclic triaxial test works. Fig. 3. 1. Simulation of geostatic and cyclic stress in triaxial test. Shear stress is taken into account as it causes deformation. To incorporate seismic effects, uniform shear stress for a given cycle is adopted for non-uniform stress time data. To achieve that a maximum shear stress is multiplied by a correction factor ?. Then the test is carried out till required deformation or failure to occur. 4. EQUIPMENT 4. 1. Parts of Dynamic triaxial apparatus suggested by ASTM D 3999 – 91(2003) APPARATUSPURPOSECONSIDERATION 1. Triaxial Pressure CellTo mount sample and conduct testTolerance for piston, top platen & low friction piston seal. Ball bearings and friction sealTo minimise frictionFriction can be,  ±2 % of the maximum single amplitude cyclic load Load rodTo facilitate loadingdia = 1/6th of specimen dia Specimen cap & BaseTo provide a sealed platform Rigid, non corrosive, impermeable, Cap weight < 0. 5% of applied axial failure load (static), Valves To regulate back pressure, cell pressure, pore water pressureLeak-proof, withstand applied pressure Top and bottom platensTo facilitate loading and provide a rigid baseProper alignment, load rod sealed with top platen with friction seal. 2. Cyclic Loading EquipmentTo induce cyclic loads Uniform sine wave @ 0. 1 to 2 Hz, simple ram or a closed loop electro hydraulic system 3. Recording EquipmentsTo record the data obtainedProperly calibrated Load MeasurementTo measure the cyclic loadsElectrical, analog or digital Axial deformation MeasurementTo measure the strain rateLVDT or dial guages Pressure ControlTo regulate cell pressureMercury or pneumatic device Pore Pressure transducerTo measure pore pressureTransducers or electronic pressure meters Volume change MeasurementTo check the volume change in the specimenCalibrated and widely used guages 3. Miscellaneous a. Rubber membrane b. Filter paper To hold the specimen To facilitate saturation Leak-proof with minimum restraint Must not cover more than 50% of the specimen. Fig. 4. 1. Schematic Diagram of a stain-controlled dynamic triaxial test 4. 2WORKING PROCEDURE The working mechanism mainly involves three phases a)Saturation phase:Initially the sand is sample saturated by applying cell and back pressure simultaneously. (cell pressure > back pressure) b)Consolidation phase: during test, void ratio should be kept constant. It is obtained in this phase. Back pressure valve is closed. )Load Phase: Actual test begins here. Strain rate is fixed using gear system. Cyclic load is applied either using hydraulic or pneumatic type. Loads and corresponding strains are recorded at loading, unloading and reloading. Test is continued until the required strain or failure occurs. 5. RESULTS From the cyclic triaxial test, we can obtain various graphs for detailed analysis, †¢Load Vs Deform ation †¢Deviatoric Stress Vs Time †¢Axial Strain (%) Vs Time †¢Excess Pore Pressure Vs Axial Strain (%) †¢Excess Pore Pressure Vs Time †¢Deviatoric Stress Vs Axial Strain (%) Fig. 5. 1. Axial load Vs. axial deformation From the hysteresis loop obtained, the dynamic Young’s modulus (Ed) can be calculated, from which shear modulus (G) can be calculated using poisson’s ratio ( µ). Damping factor (D) can also be calculated from the loop obtained. Shear Modulus, G = Ed / 2(1+ µ) Damping factor,D = Ai / 4? At Ai ? Area of Loop At ? Area of shaded portion 6. Discussions: Two series of undrained cyclic triaxial strain controlled tests were performed by Mladen Vucetic and Richardo Dobry, on two different Imperial Valley, California, silty sands which liquefied during an earthquake in 1981. Both intact and reconstituted specimens were tested. The cyclic shear strain is the fundamental parameter governing pore pressure buildup. The saturated deposit is composed of two layers: an upper, looser, sandy silt unit located between 2. 6 m and 3. 5 m depth, containing more fines (37%) (sand A), and the lower, loose to medium-dense sand unit located between 3. 5 m and 6. 8 m, containing less fines (25%) and (sand B). Selected plots of normalized cyclic shear stress, ? cy* = ? cy/? c„ and normalized residual pore pressure, u* = u/? c, versus number of uniform strain cycles, nc, up to nc = 30, are shown in Figs. 6. 1 and 4 for sands A and B, respectively, ? y above is the amplitude of cyclic shear stress acting on 45 ° planes within the specimen, with ? cy= ? dc/2 , where ? dc is the cyclic deviatoric stress amplitude, and u is the accumulated residual cychc pore pressure at the end of the pertinent strain cycle, derived from measurements at the point of the cycle at which the cyclic stress ? dc = ? cy = 0. Fig. 6. 1 Comparis on of results obtained on intact and reconstituted specimens of sand A The effect of sand fabric, that is, the difference between results obtained on reconstituted and intact specimens, is analyzed next for both sands A and B, with the help of Figs. . 1 and 6. 2. It can be readily noticed in these two figures that the residual pore pressures in cyclic triaxial strain-controlled tests are practically unaffected by the change of sand fabric (u* versus nc curves), while, on the contrary, soil stiffness is significantly affected (? cy* versus nc curves). This is especially noticeable in Fig. 6. 2. Fig. 6. 2 Comparison of results obtained on intact and reconstituted specimens of B. Fig. 6. 3 Residual pore pressure in reconstituted specimens of sands A and sand B It must also be noticed that the range of cyclic shear stresses measured at a given cyclic strain in Figs. . 1 and 6. 2, for the two sands and for the two types of specimen fabric, is quite wide, in contrast to the corresponding range of pore pressures in Fig. 6. 3, which is very narrow. This confirms once again that cyclic shear strain is the fundamental parameter governing pore pressure buildup, and that use of strain-controlled testing represents the most appropriate, as well as the most convenient, approach currently available for evaluation of seismic pore pressures and liquefaction of level ground sites. 7. FACTORS AFFECTING CYCLIC STRENGTH Effect of Confining Stress Critical void ratio is not a constant but decreases as confining pressure increases. The stress ratio decreases with increasing confining pressure. Effect of Loading Wave Form As the load data obtained from history are converted into uniform cycle by ?. The order of increasing strength was rectangular, triangular and sine Effects of Frequency on Cyclic Strength The frequency effects have only a minor (< 10 percent) effect on cyclic strength of the soils. The slower loading frequency have slightly higher strength. Effects of Relative Density At relative densities < 50%, complete liquefaction occurred almost simultaneously, and relative densities above 70% were required for safety against large strains. Effects of size & Gradation Well-graded material was somewhat weaker than uniformly graded material. This finding was attributed to a greater densification tendency in well-graded soils, as finer particles move into voids between larger particles, than occurs in uniformly graded soils. This densification tendency causes increased pore pressure. Effects of sampling on strain history Once a specimen has liquefied and reconsolidated to a denser structure, despite this densification, the specimen is much weaker to cyclic stresses reapplied. Effects of Over consolidation Ratio and Ko The maximum deviator stress required to cause a critical strain for a specified number of cycle’s increases with the Ko ratio. Also the cyclic strength increases as OCR and fines content increase. 8. VALIDATION The validation of the apparatus is done by successive tests, researcher’s experience and available equipments. Mladen vucetic and richardo dobry conducted two series (Intact and Reconstituted Specimens) of undrained cyclic triaxial tests on Imperial Valley, California, silty sands which liquefied during an earthquake in 1981. The results were compared and the experimental set up was validated. Further the tests were conducted on different types of sand and validated. 9. DEVELOPMENTS Since 1966, there has been a considerable improvements in the triaxial testing apparatus meeting results of higher accuracy and efficiency. Initially stress controlled methods were used, then strain controlled methods were adopted. To apply loads, initially hydraulic jack was used, then pneumatic system was used and then electro piezometer. Likewise there are so many advancements of triaxial tests. Some of the advancements are discussed below. Chan (1981), and Li et al (1988) Fig. 7. 1. , have developed a popular electro-pneumatic apparatus which incorporates many advancements in apparatus design and operation. Fig. 9. 1. Electro-pneumatic Apparatus Automated Cyclic Triaxial system is the next development, which is the most comonly used apparatus. It is well known for its automated input and output System, data acquisition and quick results. Fig. 9. 2. Automated Triaxial System 9. 1 RECENT ADVANCEMENTS GDS Entry level Dynamic triaxial testing system ?Technical Specifications ?Maximum Operating Frequency: 5Hz ?Minimum Operating Frequency: < 0. 001Hz ?Highly accurate dynamic, electro-mechanical actuator ?Available sample sizes (depending on cell selection): 38 x 76mm (or ? 39. 1 x 78. 2mm) to ? 150 x 300mm. Fig. 9. 3. GDS ELD ? 16-Bit dynamic data logging ?16 Bit dynamic actuator control channel ?Cell pressure range to 2MPa (dependent of cell choice) ?Small laboratory foot print No hydraulic power pack required ?Standard Triaxial cells can be used (upgraded to dynamic seals and bearings) ? Can be upgraded to perform P and S wave bender element testing. ?Can be upgraded to perform unsaturated triaxial testing with the addition of the following items: a)Unsaturated pedestal with high air entry porous stone. b)1000cc digital air Pressure/volume controller (ADVDPC) for the applicati on of pore air pressure and measurement of air volume change c)Optional HKUST double cell (available in the data sheet ‘Unsaturated Triaxial Testing of Soil (UNSAT). As well as dynamic triaxial tests, the ELDyn system can be utilised to carry out traditional triaxial tests such as UU, CU and CD as well as more advanced tests such as stress paths, K0 and Resilient Modulus tests. HS28. 610 cyclic triaxial test system is also a sophisticated apparatus available in Newdelhi (India). DYNATRIAX is another advanced cyclic triaxial equipment available at many places Los Angeles, Poland and many countries. It can operate at a maximum frequency of 10Hz. 10. CONCLUSION Many innovative systems for cyclic loading of soil have emerged in geotechnical engineering. Each system has its unique advantages and limitations. Some ways of minimizing these limitations have been pointed out. The advanced equipments are an additional tool for performing cyclic loading, in particular liquefaction testing. Extreme care must be used in preparing remoulded sand specimens, and special attention must be paid to testing techniques in order to obtain reproducible test results. In particular, the method of specimen preparation, the shape of the loading wave form, and the preciseness of density determinations greatly affect cyclic strength. Hence, development of ASTM standards for cyclic triaxial testing should include consideration of these factors in the results of this investigation. 11. REFERENCES: ASTM D 3999 Determination of Modulus and Damping Properties of Soils Using the Cyclic Triaxial Apparatus Advanced triaxial testing of soil and rock – Page 484 by Robert T. Donaghe, Ronald C. Chaney, Marshall L. Silver Chan, C. K. , 1981, â€Å"An Electropneumatic Cyclic Loading System,† Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 183-187. Dynamic Geotechnical Testing H Ronald J. Ebelhar, Vincent P. Drnevich, and Bruce L. Kutter. STP 1213 ASTM Publication Dynamic Geotechnical Testing : a symposium by Marshall L. Silver Khosla, V. K. and Singh, R. D. , â€Å"Apparatus for Cyclic Stress Path Testing,† Geoteehnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 6, No. 4, Dec. 1983, pp. t65-172. Fundamental of Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering By Prasad. Soil Liquefaction, a critical state approach by Mike Jefferies & Ken Been Kramer, Steven L. , Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996 Townsend, F. C, â€Å"A Review of Factors Affecting Cyclic Triaxial Teste,† Dynamic Geotechnical Testing, ASTM STP 654, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1978, pp. 356-383.

Moolaadé Story Essay

Seven years ago, a woman and a mother refused to subject her only daughter to be under the atrocious practice of female circumcision. Moolaadà © is the story of this woman, Collà © Ardo, a seditious and strong-minded second wife of Cirà © in a small secluded African village who single-handedly refused to allow five girls to suffer through the customary Salindà © ceremony. She was in opposition with the practice of genital mutilation due to her personal experiences and she didn’t want others to suffer like her. Collà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Moolaadà © enraged the Salindana, who were the women who performed â€Å"purification† ritual and the male elders who viewed her actions as threats to their values. As a sign of dominance, the men confiscated the women’s radios, which devastated the women because it was their source to news and music outside of their isolated lives. When the five girls escaped the Salindà © ceremony and came to Collà ©, she willingly offered them Moolaadà ©, or protection. Collà © was scarred after losing two children during childbirth due to her own genital mutilation. She remembers the pain she had to go through and the nurse had to open her up to deliver her only surviving daughter, Amasatou. Collà © remained firm that she would never let Amasatou to endure the agony of being cut. Collà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s interference with the old tradition caused outrage in the dominating patriarchal society who viewed her actions as disrespect to tradition and Islamic religion. The male elders took away the women’s radios because they didn’t want women being influenced by radical ideas. Collà © was intensely pressured by the Salindana and the male elders, including her husband to lift the Moolaadà ©. Her refusal forced her husband to whip her publically but she never once uttered the word. Collà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s actions reflected her bravery and determination which â€Å"mobilized† the other women in the village to support Collà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s intentions and realize the horrid effects of purification. She was an intelligent woman who encouraged the other women to realize that the men were oppressing them from the truth by taking away their radios, so the women wouldn’t ponder over unreasonable ideas. Collà © supported her deep-rooted opposition to genital mutilation with evidence that contradicted the men’s inaccurate dictations. While, listening to the radio Collà © had learned that Islam didn’t tolerate female genital mutilation because thousands of Muslim women would go to Mecca for pilgrimage and they weren’t cut, which shocked many of the male elders who still appeared to be ignorant. Through this, the women in the village united together and bonded through the pain each of them suffered through their genital mutilations. There is a sense of relief and happiness that reflect off these women in the end when they burned the knives used to bring suffering to generations of women who feel under the dreadful practice. As Collà © and the village women in their struggles end the practice of female genital cutting, they began their own feminism movement revolutionizing their purpose in society. Both characters having seen the world beyond the village and convinced of the need for change become unlikely allies of Collà © and the village women in their struggles to end the practice of female genital cutting. Such unlikely partnerships forged across ethnic, class, gender and generational lines have historically been crucial to the success of human rights struggles. In the campaign against the practice of female genital cutting, they are essential and Mooladà © shows us why. caused a sudden awareness among the other oppressed women in the village when her husband whipped her publically but she never once uttered the word. Allegedly eradication Unlike many recent Hollywood made films about Africa, Mooladà © is a story about Africa made by Africans from a distinctly local perspective. Yet, it speaks to universal themes of power, oppression and emancipation. In depicting one woman’s struggle to protect others from an oppressive and inhibiting tradition, Sembene brings great sensitivity and nuance to topic that is often discussed from simplistic, patronizing and polarizing standpoints. He deftly explores not only the conflict between local traditional values and the influence of modern ideas, but also the gender and generational tensions within a community largely isolated from the outside world. Although the film obviously seeks to challenge the practice of female genital cutting and raise questions about its legitimacy, it does so with sensitivity to underlying social complexities. It provides a glimpse into the perspective of local African tribesmen who see the practice of female genital cutting as process of â€Å"purification† and older women who see it as a necessary rite of passage for their daughters. However disagreeable their positions may appear, Sembene brings their voices to the story in a way that is neither condescending nor patronizing. Beyond its message, Mooladà © is a cinematic delight. Sembene assembles a group of colourful characters that add depth to his portrayal of rural African life and make for a more compelling storyline. Although this film is essentially about the local tribulations of an African village, it still mange to engage the outside world through two intriguing characters — a local itinerant vendor, nicknamed Mercenaire who previously worked as an aid worker, and a favoured son of the village Chief, Ibrahima, who returns home from his studies in France to take a bride. Both characters having seen the world beyond the village and convinced of the need for change become unlikely allies of Collà © and the village women in their struggles to end the practice of female genital cutting. Such unlikely partnerships forged across ethnic, class, gender and generational lines have historically been crucial to the success of human rights struggles. In the campaign against the practice of female gen ital cutting, they are essential and Mooladà © shows us why. Ultimately, this movie is not simply about oppression and social turmoil or about progressive citizens and regressive traditions. It is more about the resilience of the human spirit and the tenacity of ordinary people determined to change their destinies. It is an excursion into the dilemmas that confront a society caught in the midst of social and cultural change. For the human rights scholar and teacher, it provides a subtle but invaluable resource for raising awareness about the practice of female genital cutting and offers a means of understanding and explaining a controversial topic to an audience unfamiliar with the social and cultural intricacies associated with the practice. Set in a remote Muslim village in Burkina Faso, Mooladà © is the story of Collà ©, a defiant and strong-willed second wife of an elder in a West African village who refuses to allow four little girls to undergo the traditional circumcision ceremony. After losing two daughters in childbirth due to her own circumcision, Collà © had refused to allow her surviving daughter, Amasatou, to face the ordeal of being cut. Colle’s moolaadà © stirs the anger of the Salidana, a group of women dressed in red gowns who perform the mutilation. She is also forced to stand up to the intimidation of her husband and his brother and the male elders in the village who see her as a threat to their values. As a gesture of control, the men confiscate the women’s radios, their main source of news of outside life. Rigidly defending their traditions and what they questionably see as a practice sanctioned by Islam, they also turn against an itinerant merchant they call Mercenaire (Dominique Zeida) who comes to the aid of Colle in a shocking scene of public flogging. As the issue becomes crystallized, many women rally to Colle’s support whose courage in the face of determined opposition is of heroic proportions. She is thrust into an unfolding drama of village politics when she offers Mooladà © (protection) to the girls who escape the circumcision ceremony. Mooladà © is the mystical protection which in the local custom can be invoked to provide place of safety. Collà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s interference draws the fury of her deeply patriarchal community which sees her action as an affront on its culture and Islamic religion. Collà © can lift the Mooladà © with a single word and comes under the intense pressure of the male elders, her husband and some fellow women to do so. Her resolute refusal to lift the Mooladà © draws other women and girls to her cause and sets the stage for a standoff with the village elders that erupts in the centre of the village and shatters the tranquility of the community. Unlike many recent Hollywood made films about Africa, Mooladà © is a story about Africa made by Africans from a distinctly local perspective. Yet, it speaks to universal themes of power, oppression and emancipation. In depicting one woman’s struggle to protect others from an oppressive and inhibiting tradition, Sembene brings great sensitivity and nuance to topic that is often discussed from simplistic, patronizing and polarizing standpoints. He deftly explores not only the conflict between local traditional values and the influence of modern ideas, but also the gender and generational tensions within a community largely isolated from the outside world. Although the film obviously seeks to challenge the practice of female genital cutting and raise questions about its legitimacy, it does so with sensitivity to underlying social complexities. It provides a glimpse into the perspective of local African tribesmen who see the practice of female genital cutting as process of â€Å"purification† and older women who see it as a necessary rite of passage for their daughters. However disagreeable their positions may appear, Sembene brings their voices to the story in a way that is neither condescending nor patronizing. Beyond its message, Mooladà © is a cinematic delight. Sembene assembles a group of colourful characters that add depth to his portrayal of rural African life and make for a more compelling storyline. Although this film is essentially about the local tribulations of an African village, it still mange to engage the outside world through two intriguing characters — a local itinerant vendor, nicknamed Mercenaire who previously worked as an aid worker, and a favoured son of the village Chief, Ibrahima, who returns home from his studies in France to take a bride. Both characters having seen the world beyond the village and convinced of the need for change become unlikely allies of Collà © and the village women in their struggles to end the practice of female genital cutting. Such unlikely partnerships forged across ethnic, class, gender and generational lines have historically been crucial to the success of human rights struggles. In the campaign against the practice of female gen ital cutting, they are essential and Mooladà © shows us why. Ultimately, this movie is not simply about oppression and social turmoil or about progressive citizens and regressive traditions. It is more about the resilience of the human spirit and the tenacity of ordinary people determined to change their destinies. It is an excursion into the dilemmas that confront a society caught in the midst of social and cultural change. For the human rights scholar and teacher, it provides a subtle but invaluable resource for raising awareness about the practice of female genital cutting and offers a means of understanding and explaining a controversial topic to an audience unfamiliar with the social and cultural intricacies associated with the practice. Set in a remote Muslim village in Burkina Faso, Mooladà © is the story of Collà ©, a defiant and strong-willed second wife of an elder in a West African village who refuses to allow four little girls to undergo the traditional circumcision ceremony. After losing two daughters in childbirth due to her own circumcision, Collà © had refused to allow her surviving daughter, Amasatou, to face the ordeal of being cut.

Learning English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learning English - Essay Example It is necessary for English learners to become perfect speakers of the language. Regardless of the fact that majority of these learners would be interacting with other second language speakers, learning perfect English is still a crucial aspect of the general learning process. It is necessary for English learners to learn perfect English in order to establish a strong baseline for their English learning, including the grammar, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, and proper usage of the words in a sentence (Sweeney, 2003). Knowing the proper usages of English in a sentence helps reduce communication barriers among speakers and learners (Seagert, 2007). In the current age of cell phones and short messaging services where words are often shortened to fit limited characters in text messages, the importance of learning perfect English has become more important than ever. Without instructions for learning perfect English, improper grammar and spelling would likely become the norm which would cause the deterioration of the English language (Freudenberg, 2009). Moreover, this improper English language would also infiltrate the English of secondary speakers. As their English-speaking counterparts are learning imperfect English, they too would be learning imperfect English. In the end, the quality of the language would be reduced. With more transactions being carried out with secondary English speakers, the burden of learning how to speak perfect English must not be eased or reduced. (Segaert, 2007). The importance of learning perfect English is based on the demands of the English language itself, not with those who would eventually use it (Pakenham, 2004). Moreover, secondary English speakers would also benefit well from the perfect English which is used in communicating with them. The foundation of their English communication has to hinge on the proper application of the English language. Adjustments made on the English language can then be made to incorporate the usage of other foreign words (Cleary, 2004). Throughout the years, the English language has adapted these foreign words into its vocabulary, but the essence and the structure of the English language has not been changed to accommodate a structure more appealing to the secondary English speaker. And this has helped preserve the structure and form of the English language (Cleary, 2004). It is easy to argue that it is unnecessary to learn perfect English because many people speak it only as a secondary language (Kubota, 2009). They point out that not learning perfect English would make the language more relatable to the secondary English speakers; in other words, English would have a more universal appeal if people would not have to pay attention to speaking it perfectly (Kubotam 2009). It may also be important to note that the pressure of knowing and learning perfect English may discriminate against the secondary English speakers who often speak heavily-accented imperfect English (Hojena and Flege, 2006). These arguments however cannot be used as an excuse not to learn perfect

Starbucks Corporation. SWOT Analysis Research Paper

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Refute Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Refute - Essay Example Even with the possibilities of encouraging the American citizens to take the lowly esteemed jobs, currently under the hands of the claimed illegal immigrants, by raising the minimum wage, legal Americans who are less endowed with skills will lose their jobs. Similarly, the author’s campaign for rising of minimum wages, to encourage the legal citizens of America to assume the job places they have shunned cannot be founded on facts, because there could be other reasons why Americans develop negative attitudes towards the said jobs. Moreover, putting minimum wage in place can decrease the productivity of American industries, and the competing foreign industries would have a better hand in the market, which will detriment the economy. At the same time, some small industries that may not be able to accommodate the set minimum wage would close down. By increasing the minimum wage, and not putting measures against the illegal immigration, can lead to advantaging the already settled immigrant by enhancing their pay. The illegal immigration is thus better dealt with by employing other avenues than raising the minimum wage. The building of walls as recommended by the president can reduce the illegal, immigrations as per se, by approaching the problem from its basis. Building walls does not have to imply to what the authors have made it (Dukaki & Mitchel, 2006). A better dimension of its application can be obtained objectively instead of disqualifying the whole package of the idea based on some unfounded hypothesis. After all, strictness is what the issue of illegal immigrations calls for. Finally, viewing the issue of illegal immigrations in the perspectives of wages alone can lose the meaning of the whole

Marketing research of Royal National Lifeboat Association (RNLI) Essay

Marketing research of Royal National Lifeboat Association (RNLI) - Essay Example Market research can be defined as planning, collecting and analysing data which are relevant for making marketing decision (Carl, McDaniel and Gates, 1998). Making a proper market plan involves extensive market research. The process of marketing research involves six main steps. The first step is to identify the problem or the objective of the research. The goal of the research should be properly stated. Second step is to develop a research plan. This step involves deciding the sources from where the data should be collected, the methods which will be used for doing the research, the instrument to be used in the research etc. The third step is to collect the information. Many errors can occur in the third step like incorrect sampling, incomplete questioners etc. Fourth step is analysing the collected information. In this step various qualitative and quantitative methods are used. Fifth step is to communicating the results to the management and the last step is of making the decision. Based on the findings the management takes the relevant marketing decisions (Kotler et al, 2009.). The strategy which is prevailing in the Royal National Life boat Association has been analysed. The external analysis has been done using PEST analysis method. Various factors such as the economic, social, technological and political are critically analysed to know the influence on the organisation. On the basis of the analysis made SWOT analysis has been done to know the organisation’s strength and weakness, opportunities and threats the organisation is facing. At the end recommendation have been made on how the marketing objective can be achieved. 2. Brief Overview of Royal National Lifeboat Association (RNLI) The Royal National Lifeboat Association was founded in the year 1824. It was founded as the National Institution for Preservation of Life from Shipwreck. It was renamed as Royal National Lifeboat Association in the year 1854. It had its first street collection in Manchester in the year 1891(RNLI-g, 2011).The main work of Royal National Lifeboat Association is to provid e safety at sea. It offers lifeboats and lifeguards. It is also involved providing sea safety, beach safety, fishing safety, weather forecast and youth education. The beach involves providing lifeguards. This organisation is also into providing information required to be safe in beach. It also organises summer safety campaigns to make people aware of benefits of swimming at beaches which have life guards. It is providing fishing safety for last ten years. It produces various DVDs, pamphlet etc which helps in providing safety at sea. It also educates young parents and teachers on how they can be safe in sea. They also invite young people to join as volunteer in their organisation. They also provide weather forecast through their website which is daily requirement of fishermen. RNLI is also involved in flood rescue operation. The first flood

Litterature Review and bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Litterature Review and bibliography - Essay Example se, extreme changes in the room temperature including other ergonomic-related problems that may lead to the development of different types of Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) like the Carpal Tunnel Syndrome among others. (Buckle & Hoffman, 1994) Other factors such as physical stress related to illness or hormonal changes as well as emotional stress related to grievance due to the death or loss of a special someone may also increase stress at work. For the purpose this study, the researcher will gather peer-reviewed journals related to the probable causes of work-related stress and its impact over well-being of employees. To give the readers a better understanding of some medical terms used in the study, the researcher will provide the definition of words. For the literature review, the researcher will first discuss all the probable causes of work-related stress followed by repetitive strain injury, carpal tunnel syndrome and other work-related injuries. Since ergonomics study the impact of working environment in relation to stress and physical injuries related to the working conditions, the researcher will discuss the role of ergonomic analysts. Eventually, the negative health effects of work-related stress will be provided in order to give the readers a better understanding why health care practitioners should focus on preventing stress from work. Ergonomics – a scientific-based study that teaches the proper design of working environment and systems in relation to increasing the efficiency and quality of employees’ work performance. (International Ergonomics Association, 2008) Repetitive Strain Injury – also known as chronic upper-limb musculoskeletal disorders or cumulative trauma disorders are work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSD) which is often associated with repetitive poor body postures. (Stock, 1991; Ranney, Wells, & Moore, 1995) In gathering concrete evidences with regards to the major causes of work-related stress causing physical

Bmg Entertainment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bmg Entertainment - Essay Example There is competition from other major record companies such as: - Sony Music Entertainment Universal Music Group Warner Music Group WEAKNESS Decisions about how to organize and operate the company With BMG Entertainment, three of the 25 units within the division were making losses. High prices charged at the store. PORTER'S FIVE FORCES ANALYSIS The bargaining power of the customer is high. The customers have tendency of switching to another product without incurring high cost of switching. There are so many customers for the music. The customers are responsible for the supplier's revenue realized as they buy a large portion of the industry's output. The bargaining power of the suppliers is not high. Availability of substitute products. There is low switching cost created by suppliers' products. There are few suppliers for the product. A large customer of suppliers comes from individual buyers. The buyers' market place success does not determine the suppliers' goods. The threat of new entrants is not too high. The industry requires high capital to start. There are economies of scale. Product differentiation is moderate. The threat of substitute products is high. The existing product has the same quality and performance to that of the substitute product. The substitute products are offered at lower prices. There is few switching cost incurred by the buyers. The intensity of competitive rivalry among competitors is high. Switching costs incurred are low. The growth in the music industry is high. Diversification is moderate. Fixed costs are too high. Competitors for the industry include: Sony, Universal, EMI, BMG and Warner Music Group. VRIS MODEL Resources/Capability V R I S Performance Good...For this case, BMG Entertainment is supposed to use differentiation strategy, as what the customer need is a variety of music at a low price. The company should not be left behind technology wise; hence in order for them to retain their customers, they should introduce Online retailers to sell music at low prices. BMG Entertainment should develop websites whereby their customers will be able to download music at low prices. By adopting the technological change, BMG Entertainment will be in a position of producing a variety of products and selling at relatively low prices. This is more convenient to customers in term of price as its low and they will prevail in the market against its rivals. BMG Entertainment can prevail in the market if they upgrade their website system. They should invest heavily on digital technology for the sake of handling their digital customers professionally. They should introduce more Online retailer store that will make download of music cheap. BMG should use Joint Venture, Multi domestic and related diversification strategies. Joint Venture will expand rapidly at low cost, shared risks and less competition.

Enterprise Info Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Enterprise Info Security - Essay Example Buffer overflow/overrun is a form of interference where a program overruns the buffer's boundary and overwrites adjacent memory, while writing data to a buffer. Buffer overflows can be triggered by inputs that are designed to execute code, or alter the way the program operates. This may result in erratic program behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security. They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited Understanding the difference between data and programs is a very important element of avoiding various overflow attacks. When one understands that data is just computer information while a program is the software screen, he or she can be able to apply new defense systems. It’s easy for someone to understand how to use the modern security features like Data Execution Prevention (DEP) can be applied in modern operating system like Mac OSX, Linus and Microsoft Windows. For example DEP works in two different ways; either its hardware encoded or software encoded. Software-encoded DEP do not protect data pages from execution of codes, but from another type of attack. Knowledge about this security features and operating systems is very important when one is looking for the best defense against overflow attacks.

Film Analyzing Instructions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Film Analyzing Instructions - Essay Example The paper "Film Analyzing Instructions" shows film analyzing instructions. According to Jaikisham, a proper film critic must know how to elucidate why a film work or doesn’t work by looking beyond the noticeable rudiments added to sell a film to the spectators. In allowing viewers to experience the story on various levels you’ve got to analyze the specific details. Seize your note book, skull to the theater, and get ready to enter the world of film critic. Study some of these professional tips on how to analyze a film and determine the fine nuances which a lot of people miss out. This is because a glass maybe half empty or half full. Therefore it is all a substance of perception. Luckily or unluckily an excellent moviemaker does not habitually share the perspective of the audience. Hence, it is vital that one value is the importance of another’s view point. Additionally, if you are watching any film with your family or friends, it is essential that you take note of the things which an untailored film typically does and this forms origin for all your opinions about a film in the end. There is copiousness of things about a film which can be dissected to get the preeminent picture on what a film is all about. Cinema can be interpreted in many different ways and each of them is correct. The following tips are essentially important in analyzing movies. This is very important as this shows how relevant a film is for the recent time. Is it just for entertainment or is it momentous cinema?

Apartheid in South Africa Essay Example for Free

Apartheid in South Africa Essay The Apartheid legislation was a system of governance that made a huge impact in South Africa in the 20th century. It was introduced by the national party after they were elected in the 1948 election. It was a form of segregation that discriminated against the races in South Africa. It was the law in South Africa for 46 years. The Apartheid sparked lots of internal resistance with violent riots and protests taking place by groups of people. Nelson Mandela was a leading force in the opposition on Apartheid and did everything in his powers to destroy it. His voice was heard all over the country when he was the leader of Anti Apartheid movements and when he was in jail. Apartheid Legislation had a detrimental impact on society in South Africa. It was pioneered in 1948 by the newly appointed national party of South Africa when they came to power. The struggle for the end of Apartheid was long lived as it lasted until 1994 when the National party lost the election. Apartheid was the segregation of the South African people into different race groups such coloured, white, Asian and Indian. Residential areas were segregated as well as Education, medi-care, beaches, and other public areas. Although the residential areas and other public facilities were separated, the quality of living for the blacks was substantially less than that of which the whites enjoyed. Sports in South Africa were also majorly affected as South Africa was banned from some international sports such as cricket. Women weren’t left out of the equation as they struggled to gain proper rights and freedoms as most of the men experienced. Black people or natives, over time, were deprived of their citizenships and forced to live in tribes with their own people away from the city. Numerous laws were made that affected the black people immensely and stripped them of their rights and freedoms. Apartheid struck society hugely at the time of its induction and changed the way life was lived. Many factors contributed to the severity of Apartheid, no more so than the new laws that were created shortly after its introduction. These laws were made to discriminate directly against the blacks of South Africa and create white supremacy. As a result of these laws many black people in the community struggled for basic rights and freedoms. The first powerful law to be created was the  Preservation of Separate Amenities Act 1953. This law separated all parts of society from blacks and whites. The separation wasn’t equal and as a result of this the black people got the inferior side of every facility. This was the separation of every aspect of society from beaches and parks to toilets and shops. The main aim was to exclude citizens from Premises, vehicles or services based on their race. The best facilities were reserved for the white people. Education was not spared as another law was made (Bantu Education Act 1951) that restricted black children from receiving the same education as the white children. The government at the time thought that the career opportunities for black kids were limited and they were best to learn skills that would help their families in their tribes. As of that day, the black children received a substantially lower level of education than the white children of South Africa. The government spent six times as much money on white education which only made up about 20% of the country at that time. Nelson Mandela valued Education so highly in his views and once said that â€Å"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. [1] Both of these laws helped to create a large gap in society between the black and white people, one being very much better off than the other. Apartheid in South Africa aimed to strip the black people of all their rights and freedoms. This was achieved by two controversial laws. The Abolition of passes act 1953 and the Bantu Homeland act 1952. The abolition of passes act forced black people to carry identifica tion with them at all times. A pass included a photograph, details of place of origin, employment record, tax payments, and encounters with the police. It was a criminal offence to not be carrying a pass when encountered by a police officer. Africans were frequently harassed for their passes and countless numbers were arrested for it. Local citizens burned them or didn’t carry them as a sign of protest. Mass protests by blacks by not carrying their passes lead to the murder of 69 in the ‘Sharpeville Massacre’. The Bantu Homeland act was the second law that took everything away from the blacks. Through this law, the white government declares that the lands reserved for black Africans are independent nations therefore, not being a part of South Africa. In this way, the government was able to strip millions of blacks of their South African citizenship and force them to become residents of their new homelands. Blacks were then considered foreigners in white-controlled South Africa, and needed passports to enter. Blacks only entered to perform jobs that assisted whites. The law was made to ensure that the White people of South Africa would inhabit most of the main areas of the country leaving the Blacks to live on the outskirts in shocking conditions. A quote by an influential student leader Steve Bantu Biko The blacks are tired of standing at the touchlines to witness a game that they should be playing. They want to do things for themselves and all by themselves. [2] suggests that the blacks were sick of having no place in society and want their own rights and freedoms which was the obvious feeling at the time. This law is a huge violation of human rights and really emphasised the affects of the new government regime at the time. The Anti Apartheid movements were influential movements that fought for the destruction of Apartheid legislation in South Africa. They were a worldwide movement that aimed to abolish South Africa’s government system of Racial Apartheid. The anti Apartheid movement came into action both within and outside South Africa. The ANC was the first movement to be created. A second organization Split from the ANC and called themselves the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). They used civil disobedience, strikes and protest marches to oppose the apartheid legislation. After the ‘Sharpeville Massacre’, when police opened fire and killed 69 protestors, the direction of the movement changed. The ANC decided to adopt armed resistance against the state. This sparked many protestors to speak out. Both Organisations were banned after this Massacre and it forced them to move into hiding and continue their operations in private. They created an armed military wing ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ lead by Nelson Mandela and planned attacks on the state. After their first attack, their leader Mandela was sent to jail for life along with a few other leaders. At the trail to his sentence Mandela he said We are not anti-white, we are against white supremacy †¦ we have condemned racialism no matter by whom it is professed. [3]This quote shows that Mandela wasn’t racist and just wanted quality and proper human rights. Many bouts of protest broke out in South Africa after the massacre and trial, mostly by school students, and groups were made to speak out against the Apartheid legislation. The movement were starting to gain momentum and there voices were being heard further around the world. The Anti Apartheid movements were the cor nerstone to the destruction of Apartheid legislation. The movements are the reason for the popularity loss of Apartheid and the rise of Nelson Mandela as a civil rights activist. The Arrests and killing of influential members of the movement only sparked up a bigger, more aggressive reaction and more people wanted to get involved in the cause. The black conscientious movement was made by black tertiary students in 1971 and represented black pride. This idea of black pride empowered many South Africans to believe that they are a strong people and can fight for their rights. Students in Soweto in 1979 rose up against Apartheid inspired by many around them. While in protest 29 were killed and many injured by police opening fire. This sparked more and more people to rise up against the state. Labour unions played a massive role in the struggle against apartheid. In 1979 as a result of the protesting, black trade unions were legalized which was a massive win. At the same time church groups also spoke out against the evils of Apartheid. All of these people were inspired by the actions of the Anti Apartheid movements that went before them. Thabo Mbeki a South African Politian summed up the views of many South Africans at the time by saying â€Å"South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black or white. [4] This view was felt across the country by the struggling black people. The ANC and PAC affected most of the population of South Africa in some way and help get rid of the Apartheid legislation. They were the cause for the changes that took place in society over the years. Nelson Mandela played arguably the biggest role in the destruction of the Apartheid legislation in South Africa. Working with the ANC he S poke out against Apartheid and the injustice to his people. Mandela worked hard as the leader of the ANC and planned many protests on the state to help push for the abolishment of Apartheid. He was one of the most influential speakers of his time and many oppressed people heard his voice loud and clear. Under apartheid Mandela served nearly 27 years in prison but he never gave up the fight. When Mandela was imprisoned at Robben Island he continued his work and teachings. In South Africa and around the world, Nelson Mandelas anti-apartheid messages gained in popularity. This meant that his voice was heard by more and more people. Many tried to free him when he was in jail. Support for Mandela was so immense that he was able to be equitted of his charges and released in 1990. Before he was released the PM of South Africa at the time said As soon as he renounces violence and undertakes not to start violence in South Africa, government will release him. [5]The quotes suggest that the government did not want any further violence from his demonstrations in the near future otherwise he would be kept in jail and if he showed no signs of violence he would be let out. This shows trust between the two. He was able to become the leader of the ANC once again and was a leading force in South Africa. He was able to negotiate a multi-racial election in 1994 where his party won. He became prime minister and with this he abolished Apartheid legislation. In his Inaugural speech as prime minister he says â€Å"Today we are entering a new era for our country and our people. Today we celebrate not the victory of a party, but a victory for all the people of South Africa†[6]. This optimism really highlighted his attitude towards life and freedom and is why he was such a loved and influential leader. Without his voice throughout the country and the world, South Africa would have struggled to get out the Government legislation that was Apartheid Apartheid legislation in South Africa was immensely influential on society. It was one of the worst legislations to ever be put down by a government. The black community of South Africa was severely affected by this legislation with most of their rights and freedoms stripped off them. As a result of the laws and other factors, the majority of the native South Africans lived a lift without the freedom and rights that most enjoy today. Nelson Mandela with the help of the Anti Apartheid organisations pushed to stop the legislation in its tracks. He was eventually successful with his peruse of freedom and because of this he is one of the most influential men to have ever lived.

Four Seasons Goes To Paris Case Study Tourism Essay

Four Seasons Goes To Paris Case Study Tourism Essay One of the worlds leading operators of luxury hotels, Four Seasons, renovated George V and operated it as Four Seasons Hotel George V Paris in 1999, which is its first property in France. George V was opened in 1928 and since that has been a landmark which is located in the Triangle dOr (golden triangle). In Four Seasons Goes to Paris case study shows how Four Seasons developed the diversity and adapted to French market, with the Four Seasons outstanding standards. The purpose of this report is to analyse how Four Seasons, a Canadian company adapted the big cultural difference, also to be able to apply and explain the management principles identified in the case study and the management strategies in todays reality. Furthermore, by understanding how the management adapt to become the French employer and what the company core values were implemented in Four Seasons team, in order to know how the management stand out in this process. Finally, comparing to Four Seasons years of management in Paris how does the current internal and external environment affect the managers to be more entrepreneurial. Cultural awareness, Adaptation and Management Changes Cultural awareness can be thought of as internalized attitudinally insights about those common understandings held by groups that dictate the predominant values, attitudes, beliefs and outlooks of the individual. (Adler, 1986:31) Four Seasons opened its first property in Paris and it was a huge challenge for the management to go into the local. According to the case study, French is characterized by cultural researchers as having Polychromic Culture, which means they consider the importance of human relationships and they prefer building lifetime relationships. On the contrary, Americans are much more easygoing to develop short-term relationships. French do different tasks at the same time usually, but their attention can be taken away very easily. Additionally, the management explained that there is simply an incredible pride in being French and the French have a very emotional way of doing things. They cannot keep the standards and do not respect the Golden rules as it is too American as well as changing plans often because their decisions sometimes are unpredictable and not based on any reasons. For the management has to adjust to the French regulations especially in labor policy regarding to the staff working hours and conditions. David Crowl, noted that each hotel is tailor made and adapted to its national environment. Four Seasons have learned across borders from different countries and properties, trying to incorporate the native elements inside the property. Richey, the president of Richey International, which was hired to audit service quality and he felt that Four Seasons adapted to the local market very successfully from a design perspective at the first place. Also they understand the national idiosyncrasies, business culture and labor laws in order to become a French employer. Besides, Four Seasons hired Didier Le Calvez to be the General Manager of George V. He had 25 years working experience outside France and he acquired patience and tolerance to prepare the hotel opening. Four Seasons had assigned a 35-person task force which composed of experienced Four Seasons staff to help Le Calvez and his teams, to be Four Seasonize as well as making sure that the opening will be succeed. It helps to establish norms, attitudes and beliefs by reflecting the operating needs and is a good way for communicating the right information to all staff. In addition, the management implemented the 35-hour workweek at George V in order to meet the spirit of French law. Besides, starting direct line meeting for General Manager with managers, supervisors and employees in groups of 30 once a month, in order to promote communication and address the problems. It is very important for staff to be aware of different national and organizational culture because management is a process of coordinating work activities with the management skills in order to complete the work efficiently and effectively with and through people. (Robbins and Decenzo, 2008) It enables to work well with other people both in a group and individually, as hospitality is a people industry and about interaction with people from different culture, language and beliefs, communication can be improved by developing and understanding the cultural awareness Besides, a successful management for today should be able to be flexible, create ethical work environments and exhibit entrepreneurial skills when facing the changes. As we are not all the same and everyone is unique, we have to recognize the similarities and differences of each individual us, in order to achieve the same goal for the company. Instilling the Core values into the team Core values are operating  philosophies or  principles  that guide an organizations internal conduct as well as its  relationship  with the external world. (businessdictionary.com, 2010)   It is important for stakeholders of the organization because it is a performance guide and clarification of what behaviour and attitude should be performed. According to Sharp, founder and CEO of Four Seasons, he mentioned that the reason for their success is no secret. It comes down to one single principle that transcends time and geography, religion and culture. Its the Golden Rule the simple idea that if you treat people well, the way you would like to be treated, they will do the same. (Fourseasons.com, 2010) Sharp emphasized that The Golden Rule is the key to the success of the firm. It is not only a positive belief that provides consistently exceptional service and just for you to the guests, but also is a monitor to the employees and helps to shape relationships between the guests and staff. Base on the Golden Rule, the management needs to stand out by directing the activities of other people in the company with the functions of management, which is a process have generally been condensed to the basic four: planning, organizing, leading and controlling (Robbins and Decenzo, 2008:7) Planning It is a process to establish an overall strategy for achieving the goal of organization and helps to remind the staff what is the most important. (Robbins and Decenzo, 2008). The management mentioned the Four Seasons is a family and completes with rules, traditions and tough love. In order to provide consistently exceptional just for you, the Golden Rule was established to guide the family. The behaviour of all staff over the world were expected to follow the seven Four Seasons Service Culture Standards (Refers to Appendix I), Departmental Sample Core Standards and Four Seasons Goals, Beliefs and Principles. (http://www.fourseasons.com/about_us/service_culture) They are the foundation of the organizational goals and it shapes the relationships between staff and guests, as well as enriches the service culture. Organizing Structure of the Organization The responsibility of the general manager is supervising the day-to-day operations of the property and the regional management structure of the company (Refers to Appendix II) is the most important of its ability to maintain and deliver the highest and most consistent service standards in a cost-effective manner. Hire the right person with right attitude Four Seasons is trying to look deep inside of the applicants in the selection process in terms of finding the potential employees with right attitude. Refer to Frederick Taylor, the father of scientific management believed that increased efficiency could be achieved by selecting the right people for the job and training them to do it precisely in the one best way. Hire the right person with right attitude and proper training, not only increasing the strength of the property, but also controlling relationship between input and output in order to minimize the resource costs. Leading When managers motivate employees, direct the activities of others, select the most effective communication channel, or resolve conflicts among members, they are leading. (Robbins and Decenzo, 2008:8) Le Calvez, carried out some programs for motivation such as the invitation to the employees and their families for an open event about three times a year, in order to break down the barriers and remind them the pleasantness of working. Furthermore, achievement was celebrated by launching employee-of-the-month and employee-of-the-year programs to let the staff understand the recognition and the work speaks for them. Controlling The basic controlling process is the responsibility for monitoring, comparing and correcting. (Robbins and Decenzo, 2008) The management of Four Seasons hired both external and internal auditors to audit and evaluate the service quality. It is very essential because the standards of Four Seasons are the foundation for all our properties and it is based on which we build according to a senior manager noted. Therefore, the top management team gathers every morning for reflection and reviews in order to go over the mistakes, which have been done unprofessional and comparing to the companys goal and service standards, then identify and address the problem for improvement. How does Current Internal and External Environment affect managers to become more entrepreneurial Compared to the year of Four Seasons management, it is very important for the current managers to be more innovative and creative, as well as flexible in order to become entrepreneurial to both change and adapt the changes. Current Internal Environment Analysis Management Change Le Calvez worked with Four Seasons for 18 years and 8 years General Manager and Vice President in George V, he joined Shangri-La in 2007. He was credited for the renovation and his leadership while facing the adaptation and challenges. In my opinion, it effected the work motivation of the managers but they should be able to adapt the changes all the time. The hotels culture is embodied in the General Manager, An F.S. George V manager noted and it is a opportunity to establish innovative ideas and new promotional strategy in order to create a new hotels culture. Ownership Four Seasons agreed to be taken private in 2007 and was sold to the companys chief executive officer Sharp, as well as investment companies, one is Microsoft founder and Chairman, Bill Gates and the other by the owner of Fairmont Hotels Resorts, Saudi Prince Alwaleed bin Talal, the prince owned around 20% of Four Seasons already. (Usatoday.com, 2007) Gates and Prince Alwaleed invested on Four Seasons and there are opportunities to expand the Four Seasons and increase market share in other countries, where is the needs of luxury hotels and resorts. In this case the managers should work ambitious and pre-active to do market research in order to get the chance of promotions and working in another country. Current External Environment Analysis Political There are more upcoming infrastructure including convention centres, highway, mobile portal and urban planning. Furthermore, Paris is strongly promoted as a sustainable tourism destination as long as global warming becomes serious. It is also the new trend to being green in these few years, hence it provides the opportunity to explore Paris in eco-friendly way and helps to create an image of Paris is a green capital (parisinfo.com, 2010) As the French government promotes Paris as a green destination and it is part of the trend of tourism, the managers can create eco-friendly offerings and policies in order to enrich the reputation of Four Season through this opportunity. Economical Even with a tax rate of 43% in 2008, France is the fifth most attractive place to start a business. (industryweek.com, 2010) Therefore, the goods price in France is very stable as inflation rate is about 0.9 2% in these 5 years. The GDP contracted 2.1% in 2009 due to the financial crisis and there was world tourism collapse because of the Iceland volcano eruption in first quarter of 2010. Hence, there is a big lost since tourism is the largest income in Paris. Paris is the capital and gathers with most of the culture and technology of France, the manager can through this opportunity to more establish innovative conference package and facilities as well as eco-friendly meeting offer to fulfil the new demands. On the other hand, the managers can learn how and what to do during the financial crisis especially know what strategy to do when the hotel was in low occupancy rate and how to reduce the extra costs and arrange the work schedule properly in order to survive in bad financial situation. Socio Cultural Paris is well-known as a floury city but full of artistic and cultural atmosphere. There are 25,000 artists living and working in Paris because of its historic and romantic atmosphere. (Hurriyetdailynews.com, 2010) The managers will increase the cooperation with company which provides luxury city tour service as well as the training of the concierge service since the tourists come to Paris mostly for culture and sightseeing in order to create more revenue base on the advantage of the location and outstanding service. Technological France Telecom Group Orange Business Services and Disneyland Paris have built the wireless bar code of mobile messaging services for the visitors. (Technow.com, 2009) In meanwhile, the government is planning to increase building mobile portal. (Proximamobile.fr, 2009) It is very innovative and convenient and the visitors can access to the useful travel information. The managers can cooperate with the telecom companies about implement the new hotel wireless system in order to attract new target markets and turn it into the new unique selling point. Then the guests will be able to find the information of the property as well as the tourist information through this innovative service. Conclusion To conclude, Four Seasons  has grown effectively over half a century with the exceptional and unparalleled service. The success of Four Season all bases on a simple idea Golden Rules If you treat people well, the way you would like to be treated, they will do the same. Likewise, Four Season George V has been renovated successfully through by understanding the cultural awareness and adapting to the local market with universal standards. The successful management is not only required the qualifications but also be able to take accountability for decisions and policies, with the positive attitude, exhibit entrepreneurial skills and flexibility to create ethical work environments. Besides, the internal and external environment factors need to be recognized and overcome by the management skills. Hence, the spirit of the Four Seasons consistent personalize service will be highlighted perfectly. Appendix Appendix I The Seven Four Seasons Service Culture Standards (Sources: Four Seasons Goes to Paris Case Study) SMILE Employees will actively greet guests, SMILE, and speak clearly in a friendly manner. EYE Employees will make EYE contact, even in passing, with an acknowledgment. RECOGNITION All staff will create a sense of RECOGNITION by using the guests name, when known, in a natural and discreet manner. VOICE Staff will speak to guests in an attentive, natural, and courteous manner, avoiding pretension, and in a clear VOICE. INFORMED All guest contact staff will be well INFORMED about their hotel and their product, will take ownership of simple requests, and will not refer guests elsewhere. CLEAN Staff will always appear CLEAN, crisp, well groomed, and well fitted. EVERYONE EVERYONE, everywhere, all the time, show their care for our guests. Appendix II Four Seasons Reporting Structure (sources: Four Seasons Goes to Paris Case Study) Regional Vice Presidents Hotel General Managers Regional Marketing Director Area Director of Finance Regional Human Resource Director Supporting

Is globalization to be blamed for child labour

Is globalization to be blamed for child labour This paper addresses an issue that appears to be on the increase worldwide; Child Labour. Recent ILO estimates state that every seventh child in the world is engaged in working activities. Because of their familys financial difficulties these children are forced to give up their future in terms of education, health and leisure. This emphasises the importance to carry out further research and analysis on the phenomenon of child labour as well as come up with effective policy inventions in order to eliminate child labour. According to Basu (1999) designing policies should be based on careful analysis and research instead of underlying emotions or feelings towards child labour. It is extremely important to consider the precise definition of child labour before proceeding. There is immense heterogeneity in defining child labour as different groups view it differently. For example according to Ashagrie (1993) a child is categorised as labourer if the child is economically active. Then again we need to come to an agreement on what age group being a child consists of. Most studies however follow the ILOs convention No.138 and treat a person under 15 years old as a child and estimate child labour by observing economic activity of children under the age of 15. For the purpose of our study we will be looking at children between the ages 0-14. The aim of this paper is to discover the impact globalisation has had and is having on child labour. As globalization is a broad topic, I will be focusing specifically on trade liberalization, which plays an essential role within the globalization process. Liberalised trade had been the engine of capitalistic growth from colonial times; however globalization has led to a change in this pattern. Under colonialism, land conquest operated as a pre-condition and  (foreign) capital and (foreign) labour converged on land to produce goods for trade (e.g. plantation production). But, with globalization, capital is seeking investment outlets globally, where, besides marketing opportunities,  cheap labour is a key determinant. This has resulted in large scale foreign direct investment (FDI) with multi national corporations yielding the necessary structural change. LEDCs are keen to receive FDI and have gone to the extent of creating a suitable environment for such capital overlooking socia l issues.  The policy had been conducive for cheap labour in the form of children and women (e.g. garment industries within the FTZ in Sri Lanka). Economists argue that international trade is beneficial in terms of increasing the income of the country as well as creating job opportunities in the country. It is also one of the important sources of revenue for a developing country. But there is no denying that there may be losers from international trade too; for example the imports of cheap goods produced by low skilled workers may not only reduce the demand for those goods but also reduces employment opportunities for low skilled workers. Although trade can bring some disadvantages to a countrys economy, it is necessary that it does not effect the younger population who will determine the future of the economy. This paper investigates whether trade liberalization increases the incidence of child labour. Since our concern is working children, who are predominant in the developing world, my focus will be on developing countries specifically on India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The main reason for why it is interesting to consider these South Asian countries is due to the high proportion (40%) of the worlds child labour emerging from these countries as well as the rapid export growth monitored in these countries. One would expect a positive relationship between trade openness and child labour as more trade means more exports, which in turn means an increase in demand for labour; therefore, children enter the labour market. However this is an extremely generalised statement, the next section presents what the economic theory says about this matter. This study looks at a panel of 50 developing countries over a period of 4 decades to in order to observe the effect of trade on chil d labour. Another reason for the use of panel data is due to the fact that child labour is not a recent issue, it has been happening for several decades now, therefore it is interesting to see if there has been a trend over time. It also makes sense to observe the consequences of globalisation over time as there has been a rapid, continuous progress in information and technology which highly contributes to trade liberalization (Krugman 1995), especially in the 1980s when globalisation got in its stride. In order to test the effect of trade liberalization on child labour, a multiple regression analysis will be carried out using economic activity rate of children between 10-14 as the indicator for child labour and the countrys imports and exports (%GDP) as the measure of trade openness. In addition control variables such as GDP per capita and proportion of children between 0-14 as well as regional dummies are added to the regression. Data are mainly collected from the World Bank and UN common database. The report proceeds as follows. Chapter 2 reviews the theory of trade and how it is likely to affect child labour. The methods used to carry out the empirical analysis along with the description of the data used is described in chapter 3. The results and findings are presented in chapter 4 followed by the conclusions and possible policy recommendations in chapter 5. Theory Parents make the decisions regarding whether to send their children to school; they make these decisions by comparing benefits and costs of education as well the opportunity cost of time spent in education rather than working. Ranjan (1999) says that credit market imperfections are the reason for the existence of borrowing constraints. Therefore when parents cannot borrow against their childrens future earnings, the deep poverty forces them to send their children to work. When the country opens to trade in an unskilled labour abundant country (i.e. developing country) this may affect child labour in two ways. Firstly, the demand effect due to the increase in wage of the unskilled workers which in turn reduces the returns to skilled workers. Looking at it in this perspective makes it more likely that parents would send their children to work rather than to school. Another perspective is that households with unskilled workers become better off as they receive higher wages; therefore th ere is less of a need to send the children to work. The overall outcome will depend on which of these effects dominates (Ranjan 2001). However it is important to note that the impact of trade liberalization on child labour will be varied in different countries depending on the factor endowments of the country. Developing countries are relatively abundant in unskilled labour therefore trade growth may not have a significant impact on child labour. Krueger(1996) says that trade between two countries is determined by comparative advantage. A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good is smaller in that country compared to other countries. The country with a comparative advantage also uses its resources most efficiently in the production of that good. So for example if developing countries specialize in goods that make use of unskilled labour, more of those goods are produced. The country gains from trade due to its specialization in the products that uses its resources more efficiently. This in turn brings more income to the country which can then be used to buy the goods and services the country desires. Domestic workers also benefit from this as the familys real income increases from producing the good the country specializes in. This theory can be linked with the two possible implications trade has on child labour as discussed by Ranjan; income effect reduces child l abour as the additional income helps parents reduce the work load of their children or the higher income to families may also mean parents would rather send their children to work. However Cigno et al (2002) found a negative relationship between trade and the incidence of child labour in their cross country study. The problems using a cross country study is that data collection methods in different countries may vary; therefore results may be less reliable when comparing. Also cross sectional  studies are carried out at one particular point in time or over a short period of time, therefore its only a snapshot. The results may be different if the study had been carried out in a different period. Findings of Shelbourne (2002) also supports the results derived from the study carried out by Cigno et al. Her reasoning was that the economy expands due to international trade which in turn increases per capita GDP reducing the need for child labourers. This is not necessarily true as an i ncrease in the volume of production within the country might mean there is higher demand for cheap labour in order to maximize profits. The Heckscher-Ohlin theory explains trade through differences in resources. For example let us now take a look at a simple framework where capital and labour are the factors of production. Under this framework a country will have comparative advantage in producing goods which intensively uses the factor with which they are abundantly endowed. According to this theory openness to trade increases demand for the good produced by the abundant factor which indirectly increases the demand for the abundant factor itself. This also increases the price of the abundant factor. In other words, countries that have a relatively high proportion of labour (labour intensive), which are mainly the developing countries will tend to export labour intensive goods and countries which are well endowed in terms of capital will export capital intensive goods. (criticize) Brown (2000) and Dixit (2000) believe that when countries involve in trade the wages are determined by the prices of the products. In conjunction with Heckscher-Ohlins model, this means the increase in price of the export products can actually reduce the incidence of child labour as adult wages rise. However according to Maskus (1997) the demand for child labour depends on the demand for export goods. In other words the higher the demand for export goods the higher the demand for child workers through higher equilibrium wages. His theory, however contradicts with Stolper Samuelsons theorem, which states that the expansion of the export sector increases adult wages and therefore it reduces the supply of child labour. These are two contradicting views as the expansion in the export sector can either increase or decrease child labour. However, all these theories are solely based on income and how child labour is affected due to the income effects triggered by trade. Perhaps other factor s such as poverty and welfare benefits should be taken in to account. It is generally accepted that liberalization under globalization has led to a maldistribution of income, which has created relative poverty. The worst affected has been the LEDCs. It is also true that certain  LEDCs, the least developed ones, are also affected by absolute poverty. When families are threatened to be  below poverty lines, child labour becomes a convenient means to enhance family incomes. Moreover part of the liberalized programme under globalization has been a reduction in welfare activities both in the developing and developed world. World Bank and IMF impose on LDCs welfare reduction as a pre-requisite for capital and any other form of assistance. It has led to privatisation in especially health and education driving a lot of families to lower income levels, eventually, culminating in denial of proper educational facilities  and the creation of child labour. Overall, the review of theory works seems to be more supportive towards a negative relationship between trade openness and child labour mainly due to the positive income effect trade brings to the country. We will now take a look at some empirical evidence to see if they support these theories. Empirical evidence The empirical evidence already found on the relationship between trade openness and child labour does not give us a clear picture. Most cross-sectional studies tend to show a negative relationship between trade improvement and the incidence of child labour. In fact in the panel study carried out by Cigno et al. (2002) there were no significant relationship between the two variables. The overall effect of trade liberalization on child labour seems to differ across countries. Kis-Katos (2007) carried out an empirical study using a panel of 91 countries measuring variables every decade from 1960-2000. However she only included the countries that reported a positive value of child labour; one needs to take into consideration that not all countries let out information about issues such as child labour and also countries tend to underreport work by children, therefore her results may have been different if these secretive countries were also included. She found an overall increase in trade openness over the decades as well as a steady decrease in the incidence of child labour. However the reliability of the data should be taken into account as illegal work or household work carried out by children may not be reported, which affect the reliability of the results. Moreover in developing countries economic censuses are rare and the ILO often makes adjustments such as intrapolating or extrapolating data in order to get estimates. This means the actual values may be over or under estimated than the true value. Cigno et al. (2002) found no empirical evidence that international trade raises child labour. In fact their cross country study shows that trade liberalisation actually decreases child labour. One of the indicators they used to measure child labour was primary school non-attendance rate. It is important to note that child not attending school does not necessarily mean the child is engaging in economic activity. It may for example be the case that the family cannot afford to send the child to school or even that the child has health problems. Therefore using primary school non attendance rate is not as appropriate as an indicator. The other indicator used was economic activity of children between ages 10-14, which clearly excludes children younger the 10 who are more of a cause of concern. However considering there are only limited data available on child labour, these indicators do give us a broad brush picture of the evolution of child labour. Issues with the reliability of data are the same as those discussed for Kis-Katoss empirical study above. As we have seen, most of the empirical findings are consistent with the theoretical considerations we discussed previously. In other words empirical work carried out so far mainly find a negative relationship between trade openness and child labour supporting most of the theories. Methodology Our empirical work is aimed at understanding whether the panel data evidence suggests a link between trade and child labour and whether there is any evidence to support our hypothesis of trade liberalization exerting an upward pressure of child labour. Data and variables In order to address the research question which is to observe whether trade liberalization increases child labour, a panel of 50 developing countries are used, where the variables are measured every ten years between 1960-2000. The focus of the regression is to observe child labour over time keeping in mind the current wave of globalisation progressed rapidly around the 1980s. However by looking at the data it is important to note that not all countries have experienced an increase in trade over each decade. There are a total of 250 observations for each variable considered over the years 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000. A panel data method has been carried out for this analysis for several reasons. Firstly the use of panel data increases the number of observations. For example in our case using data over 5 different time periods has increased the sample size by 5 times which will help increase the precision of the regression estimates. It also increases the degrees of freedom and reduces the collinearity among explanatory variables, again increasing the precision of the estimates. Moreover it allows us to analyse important economic questions which cannot be addressed using cross sectional analysis alone. For example in our case using a cross sectional analysis will not be appropriate as we are interested in observing a trend over time. Data was taken from the World Bank development indicators (reference) and the United Nation common database. The dependent variable used is the economic activity rate of children between the ages 10-14 taken from the ILO estimates. Using this variable as an indicator for child labour has two main problems. Firstly children under the age of 10 who may be involved in child labour are excluded. Secondly this indicator does not include children working within the household, or children involved in illegal work such as prostitution. In developing countries economic censuses are rare and the ILO often makes adjustments such as intrapolating or extrapolating data in order to get estimates. This means the actual values may be over or under estimated than the true value, which also have an impact on the results. However considering the lack of data available on child labour and comparing with other indicators present, this indicator serves best available proxy for measuring child labour. As we are looking at the impact of trade on child labour the main explanatory variable used in our analysis is trade (% GDP). The trade variable gives the sum of exports and imports of goods and services measured as a share of gross domestic product. In addition to this two other control variables have been included. The control variables are GDP per capita growth (%) and the age group 0-14 as a percentage of the whole population. The reason for the use of control variables is to see if there is actually a relationship between trade and child labour given that these control variables which also affect the dependent variable are kept constant. It would have been desirable to control for variables such as poverty and differences in income distribution, but the data available was not sufficiently consistent across the countries and years we are considering. GDP per capita is used as a control variable because it controls for average income effects caused by trade liberalization. As we mentioned earlier increase in trade means countries gain new production opportunities which in turn increases GDP per capita. This positive income effect is most likely to reduce child labour. Therefore it is essential to control this variable. The other control variable used is age group 0-14 as a percentage of the whole population. This variable allows us to observe whether the increase in number of children in that given age group over the years affects child labour. The notion behind this is that the larger the families the higher the demand for income therefore a higher chance of children entering the labour force. As my main focus is on South Asian countries a regional dummy variable has been added to the regression which takes a value of 1 if the country is in South Asia and a value of 0 if not. This regional dummy helps to capture the change in child labour in the south Asian countries which is known to have a high prevalence of child labour. Results By looking at the data for every 10 years from 1960 to 2000, we can see a general increase in trade openness over time as well as a steady decrease in economic activity rates. We begin our analysis by considering the association between volume of trade (openness) and child labour for the years 1960, 1980 and 2000. This allows us to have a rough overview of how the relationship has changed (if any) before and after globalisation (considering globalisation occurred around the 1980s). 1980 This figure shows a scatter plot of the data for 1980 for the variables trade and child labour. A point on this scatter plot represents the volume of trade in 1980 and the economic activity rate of children between 10-14 in 1980 for a given country. The OLS regression line obtained by regressing these two variables is also plotted on the figure, which shows a slightly negative relationship; the estimated regression line is: CL = 26.6601794934 0.0149024702066*TRADE (1980 data) Because we have data for more than one year, we can re-examine this relation for another year. The scatter plots for the years 1960 and 2000 are given below. CL = 36.3205247048 0.119594768169*TRADE (1960 data) CL = 26.0540622351 0.109873185356*TRADE (2000 data) All three scatter plots show a negative relation between trade and child labour although year 2000 has the highest coefficient on trade implying that the reduction in child labour was greater in the year 2000 compared to 1960 and 1980. Keeping in mind that globalization took its stride in the 1980s, these scatter plots show that globalization has in fact reduced child labour further. However these plots only show what happened in that specific year, there may have been fluctuations between the years (i.e between 1980 and 1990) and also we cannot tell the trend over time using these individual plots. A better way of estimating the relationship is a regression approach that takes into account both the time and the cross section. Estimation strategy The estimation equation is of the following form: CLit = f( Tradeit, GDPit, Population 0-14it, Regional dummy for South Asiait), Where i= country x and t= time (decade t). More formally: Yit = ÃŽÂ ²1i + ÃŽÂ ²2X2it + ÃŽÂ ²3X3it + ÃŽÂ ²4X4it + ÃŽÂ ´(SAit) + ÃŽÂ µit. The anticipated signs of the coefficients: The coefficient of trade (ÃŽÂ ²2) which is what we are most interested in could either be positive or negative, although according to theory it is most likely to be negative. Coefficient of GDP (ÃŽÂ ²3) is expected to be negative as the higher the GDP per capita the lower the incidence of child labour due to the positive income effect. The coefficient of the number of children aged 0-14 (ÃŽÂ ²4) is expected to be positive as the larger the number of children per family the higher the demand for income in order to support the family. As south Asia has a high incidence of child labour, the coefficient of the dummy variable is expected to be positive and large. Dependent Variable: CL Method: Panel Least Squares Date: 03/21/10 Time: 16:24 Sample: 1 5 Periods included: 5 Cross-sections included: 50 Total panel (balanced) observations: 250 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.  Ã‚   C -1.326061 7.182926 -0.184613 0.8537 TRADE -0.103054 0.031110 -3.312572 0.0011 GDP -0.448464 0.186588 -2.403504 0.0170 POP 0.778480 0.163337 4.766091 0.0000 SA 6.023961 3.378131 1.783223 0.0758 R-squared 0.149969   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mean dependent var 25.40160 Adjusted R-squared 0.136091   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  S.D. dependent var 15.99024 S.E. of regression 14.86241   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Akaike info criterion 8.255344 Sum squared resid 54118.32   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schwarz criterion 8.325773 Log likelihood -1026.918   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hannan-Quinn criter. 8.283690 F-statistic 10.80618   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Durbin-Watson stat 0.152585 Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000 CL = -1.32606116682 0.103053628312*TRADE 0.448464386734*GDP + 0.778479521915*POP + 6.0239606613*SA The results show the coefficients of ÃŽÂ ²2, ÃŽÂ ²3, ÃŽÂ ²4 are as expected. For a given country i, when trade liberalization varies across time by one unit, child labour decreases by 0.103 units. Similarly when GDP and population vary across time by one unit child labour decreases by 0.448 and increases by 0.778 respectively. Looking at the results it is clear that trade liberalization does not have much of an impact on child labour as indicated by a very small coefficient, which we may even interpret as there being no impact of trade on child labour. It is important to note that being a South Asian country is associated with child labour that is 6.02 units higher, everything else held constant. This was also expected as we found out earlier that a large proportion of child labour comes from South Asian countries. Our previous theory discussion implied that the relationship between openness and child labour could be either positive or negative. Our results suggest that grea ter openness is associated with slightly less child labour or even no effect on child labour. In order to test the significance of the coefficients, t-tests have been carried for each variable: Trade: H0: ÃŽÂ ²2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 (there is no relationship or a positive relationship between trade openness and child labour) H1: ÃŽÂ ²2 t = b2 = -3.313 se(b2) Under the 5% significance level the critical t-value is t(0.05,246) = -1.651. Since -3.313 GDP: H0: ÃŽÂ ²3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0 (there is no relationship or a positive relationship between GDP and child labour) H1: ÃŽÂ ²3 t = b3 = -2.404 se(b3) Since -2.404 Number of children between 0-14: H0: ÃŽÂ ²4 = 0 (there is no relationship between number of children and child labour) H1: ÃŽÂ ²4 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚   0 (there is a negative relationship between number of children and child labour) t = b4 = 4.77 se(b4) Since 4.77 > 1.651 we do not reject H0. In this case there is insufficient evidence in our sample to conclude that there is a relationship between number of children between 0-14 and child labour. Therefore we cannot be confident that this variable is actually has an impact on child labour. Perhaps further research into this will be useful. Estimating the regression excluding the population variable yields similar coefficients for the trade and GDP variables however the dummy variable for south Asia has a much smaller coefficient compared to when population was included. This shows that population is an important variable when considering South Asian countries and excluding it leads to an omitted variable bias especially when south Asian countries are involved. This is true as countries like India have a very large population therefore the proportion of children between 0-14 is likely to be high. As discussed earlier large number of children per household means extra income is required to support the family, which may lead to a necessity for children to work. Although population is an important variable, regressing it with child labour may not yield extremely reliable results in our case. This is because we are only taking into account children between the ages 10-14 as a measure of child labour, which is excluding the age group 0-9, whereas the population variables includes all ages between 0-14. This implies that the coefficient is likely to be much higher if we were to include economic activity rate of children between 0-14 as our dependent variable, which was not possible due to limited availability of data. This may be a reason why the coefficient of the population variable was insignificant as we found when carrying out the t-test. These results interpreted above however did not control for the characteristics of the countries. Fixed effect approach An advantage of panel data is that we are able to hold constant individual differences which allow us to focus on marginal effects of the independent variables considered. It is reasonable to into include the fixed effects model in our analysis as the data complies with the 2 basic requirements of using the fixed effects model; firstly dependent variable must be measured for each country for at least 2 periods and secondly the independent variable must change in value across the periods. There is no need to add the dummy variable in this case as the fixed effects are already controlling for location. Having the cross section as fixed yield the following results: As we can see from the table the coefficient of trade is more or less the same as before, however GDP now has a slightly positive coefficient. The regression R2 jumps from 0.0705 to 0.9097 when fixed effects are included. This shows that the country fixed effects account for a large amount of variation in the data. Although fixed effect approach has an attractive feature that allows controlling for the variables that have not or cannot be measured, they only take into account within country differences discarding any information about differences between countries. An F-test can be carried out to see if there is individual differences and it if is important to include cross section fixed effects in the model. Ho: ÃŽÂ ²11=ÃŽÂ ²12=ÃŽÂ ²13à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. =ÃŽÂ ²1N (no fixed effect differences) H1: the ÃŽÂ ²1i are not all equal F = (SSER SSEU) /J = 38.63 SSEU/(NT-N-(K-1)) Where the degrees of freedom J = N-1 = 50-1 = 49 and NT-N-(K-1) = (50x 5)-50-(3-1) = 198. Under the 5% significant level the critical value is Fc = 1.419 We reject Ho if F à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ Fc, since 38.63 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥1.419 we reject the null hypothesis of no fixed effect differences between these countries, therefore it is good to include fixed effects in the model. Overall, changes in trade over the decades had no impact or very little (decrease) effect on child labour. The other explanatory variables GDP and population also had the expected signs on the coefficients although under the fixed effects GDP had a small but positive coefficient. (what does this mean?) These finding are consistent with the theory we discussed previously. Policy interventions What can the Government do to reduce child labour? Some of the previous studies carried out on this topic have mainly mentioned improvements in schooling facilities as one of the main policy recommendations for combating child labour. For example Basu (0000) says that availability of good schools and provision of free meals for the children would be a way to reduce the number of children working. However, developing countries are generally poorer due to the lack of funds; therefore it may not be feasible to invest a lot on schooling. Moreover, attending school is only going to decrease full time work, whereas children could still be involved in part-time work after school. This shows that it is very difficult to abolish child labour completely by changes in schooling policy. Basu also mentions that a total ban on child labour may be a better option as a large scale of withdrawa